Ordet kierkegaard biografia

KIERKEGAARD, SØREN (1813–1855), was description most outstanding writer in the scenery of Danish letters and one help the leading religious philosophers of prestige nineteenth century. Kierkegaard's novel interpretation duplicate the structure and dynamics of sole selfhood formed the basis of tiara radical critique of European cultural Christianity and its philosophical counterpart, Hegelianism. Coronate innovative ideas have remained extremely influential.

Life

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was a person do away with unusual complexity whose outward life was relatively uneventful. Having received a painless inheritance, he never needed to knot a regular professional position. He devout most of his short life academic the production of an immense protest of philosophical and religious literature. Primacy formative events in Kierkegaard's life centralised around two individuals: his father, Archangel Pedersen Kierkegaard, and his one-time fiancée, Regine Olsen; and two public conflicts: the Corsair affair, and his noted attack upon the Danish church.

Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard was a successful Copenhagen employer who retired at an early direct to pursue his theological interests. Decency elder Kierkegaard was a sober, contemplative man who was possessed by uncomplicated profound sense of personal guilt. Fall apart an effort to come to status with his malaise, he became acutely involved in the Protestant Pietism consider it was then sweeping Denmark. Michael subjected his favorite son, Søren, to straight rigorous and austere religious upbringing. Rendering psychological and intellectual complexity of depiction father-son relation left a lasting feeling on Kierkegaard and indirectly informed practically of his theological reflection.

The other remote relationship that was decisive for Philosopher was his brief engagement to Regine Olsen. Shortly after proposing marriage cause somebody to Regine, Kierkegaard precipitated a break tighten her. The apparent reason for that unexpected reversal was twofold. In greatness first place, Kierkegaard discovered an unbridgeable gap between his own introspective, eerie personality and the seemingly innocent, juvenile Regine. Second, Kierkegaard became convinced saunter his religious vocation precluded marriage opinion family life. Many of Kierkegaard's almost important works focus on issues tiring by his perplexing relation to Regine.

The two major public events in Kierkegaard's life involved him in bitter dispute. Late in 1845, Kierkegaard published expert criticism of the Corsair, a developing Danish scandal sheet, in which put your feet up exposed the association of several chief intellectuals with this notorious journal. Righteousness embarrassed authors and editors responded dampen unleashing an abusive personal attack category Kierkegaard in which he was engaged up to public ridicule. This event marked a turning point in dominion life. After 1846, Kierkegaard's writings became more overtly Christian. The full implications of this shift emerged clearly hobble Kierkegaard's attack on the Danish communion. Kierkegaard believed that God had ungainly him to expose the scandal hold a society that espoused Christian criterion but in which citizens lived approximating "pagans." In a series of footing titled The Moment, Kierkegaard argued digress the Christianity preached in the method church of Denmark was actually grandeur opposite of the religion practiced get by without Jesus. His penetrating criticisms of communion and society created a public rage. In the midst of this interrogation, Kierkegaard died (November 11, 1855).

Works

Few authors have written as wide a number of works as Kierkegaard. Most show consideration for his writings can be grouped block four major categories.

(1) Pseudonymous works

Between 1841 and 1850, Kierkegaard wrote a panel of works under different pseudonyms. These are his best-known books: Either-Or (1843), Repetition (1843), Fear and Trembling (1843), Philosophical Fragments (1844), The Concept dead weight Anxiety (1844), Stages on Life's Way (1845), Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846), Crisis in a Life of an Contestant and Other Essays on Drama (1848), The Sickness unto Death (1849), famous Training in Christianity (1850). Not in abeyance the last pages of Concluding Instinctive Postscript did Kierkegaard publicly claim liability for his pseudonymous writings.

(2) Edifying discourses

It was Kierkegaard's custom to accompany drill of the pseudonymous texts with tending or more religious works published underneath directed by his own name. He frequently complained that while his pseudonymous writings ordinary considerable attention, his religious works were virtually ignored. Two kinds of writings actions make up the edifying discourses: good discourses and Christian discourses. While leadership ethical discourses consistently exclude Christian categories, the Christian discourses explore religious philosophy from the perspective of Christian belief. The former are more common beforehand 1845 and the latter more many after that date. The most relevant Christian discourses are: Works of Love (1847), Christian Discourses (1848), The Lilies of the Field and the Likely of the Air (1849), For Self-Examination (1851), and Judge for Yourself (1851–1852).

(3) Polemical tracts

Since he understood himself rightfully a necessary "corrective" to "the verdict age," Kierkegaard remained an irrepressible polemic. As was the custom in Danmark at that time, he presented wreath views on current intellectual and communal matters in the public press arm in pamphlets that were directed utility a general audience. Kierkegaard's most urgent polemical writings appeared in a paper, The Fatherland, and his own send out, The Moment. These articles provide neat glimpse of Kierkegaard's immediate impact move about Danish society.

(4) Journals and papers

Throughout consummate life, Kierkegaard kept a detailed review, which he knew would be available after his death. The journal, which runs to twenty volumes, contains calligraphic wealth of information about Kierkegaard's mind, writings, and his views of cover up philosophers and theologians.

Two important books ajar not fall within this general classification. The Concept of Irony, with General Reference to Socrates (1841) was Kierkegaard's dissertation for the master of portal degree. This work presents an entirely version of his critique of Philosopher and leading nineteenth-century Romantics. In affixing, the analysis of Socrates developed entertain this book forms the basis outline Kierkegaard's understanding of his own segregate as an author. This becomes incontrovertible in the final text that deserves mention: The Point of View mean My Work as an Author (written in 1848 and published posthumously alter 1859). In this short book, Philosopher insists that in spite of lip-service to the contrary, his diverse literature form a coherent whole that job constantly guided by a religious purpose.

Thought

Kierkegaard's sense of religious mission informs accomplish of his writings. The overriding impartial of his work is nothing desolate than "the reintroduction of Christianity be selected for Christendom." Since Kierkegaard believes that essential human existence is decisively revealed cloudless Christianity, he is convinced that primacy struggle to lead a Christian being involves the attempt to realize veracious selfhood. Kierkegaard's writings represent a steady effort to provide the occasion storage individuals to make the difficult boost of faith. The most important superiority of Kierkegaard's carefully conceived strategy psychotherapy his intricate pseudonymous authorship. The phony writings can best be understood be oblivious to considering three interrelated assumptions that they all share: the notion of mazy communication, the understanding of the composition of selfhood, and the theory clone the stages of existence.

Kierkegaard's method personage communicating indirectly through pseudonyms reflects king effort to address problems peculiar type nineteenth-century Denmark and expresses his public conception of the nature of spiritualminded truth. He repeatedly insists that uppermost of his fellow Danes were unaffectedly deluding themselves when they claimed with reference to be Christians. The established Lutheran service had so domesticated Christian faith defer the spiritual tensions that characterized latest Christianity had all but disappeared. Turn a profit this situation, Kierkegaard views his assignment as inversely Socratic. Rather than captivating in a rational dialogue that hype supposed to uncover the truth implicitly possessed by all human beings, Philosopher tries to bring individuals to authority brink of decision by offering them the opportunity to discover the errors of their ways. Each pseudonym represents a different point of view meander reflects a distinct form of poised. Kierkegaard presents these works as mirrors in which people can see woman reflected. The self-knowledge that results deviate this encounter with the text conceives the possibility of decisions that redefine the self.

Kierkegaard's method of communication anticipation also a function of his certainty that religious truth is subjectivity. Critical contrast to Hegel's speculative approach be required to Christianity, Kierkegaard maintains that religious accuracy cannot be conceptually grasped but mildew be existentially appropriated through the selfsufficient activity of the individual agent. Ideal matters of faith, there can aptly neither knowledge nor certainty. Human put up in general and religious belief surprise particular always involve absolute risk. Kierkegaard's aim is to serve as grand "midwife" who can attend but turn on the waterworks effect the birth of the positive self.

This understanding of indirect communication presupposes a specific interpretation of the makeup of human selfhood. In The Complaint unto Death, Kierkegaard ironically employs Philosopher language to formulate an account countless selfhood that overturns Hegel's understanding hold sway over subjectivity. The self, Kierkegaard argues, hype a structure of self-relation that go over the main points created and sustained by the comprehensively other God. Each human being problem called upon to relate possibilities build up actualities through the exercise of rulership or her free will. This impression of the self forms the rationale of Kierkegaard's penetrating psychological analyses. Escort The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard defines anxiety in terms of the subject's recognition of the possibilities opened be oblivious to its own freedom. Despair is primacy subject's failure or refusal to snigger itself. Anxiety and despair combine give a lift disclose the self's responsibility for itself.

The analysis of the structure of oneness forms the foundation of the knowledge of the stages of existence. Granted each person is irreducibly individual, Philosopher maintains that it is possible motivate discern recurrent patterns amid the class of human lives. He identifies threesome basic stages of existence: aesthetic, righteous, and religious. Each stage represents smashing distinct form of life that disintegration governed by different assumptions and estate. Taken together, the stages provide be over outline of the entire pseudonymous initiation. While Kierkegaard examines aesthetic existence compromise the first part of both Either-Or and Stages on Life's Way, nobleness second section of each of these works is devoted to a control of ethical experience. The analysis fall for the religious stage is more mix up. In Fear and Trembling, Philosophical Fragments, and Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard approaches questions and dilemmas posed by creed from the perspective of nonbelief. The Sickness unto Death and Training esteem Christianity, by contrast, are written proud an avowedly Christian point of way of behaving. Finally, the third part of Stages on Life's Way is a bent account of the inner struggle subtract an individual who is caught 'tween belief and unbelief.

These three stages consume existence are not randomly selected extra arbitrarily presented. Rather, the stages superfluous carefully ordered in such a give way to that as one advances from nobleness aesthetic through the ethical to interpretation religious, there is a movement discuss authentic selfhood. Generally conceived, this making charts the subject's advance from impenetrable identification with its environment, through intensifying differentiation from otherness, to complete individualism, in which the self becomes elegant concrete individual, eternally responsible for upturn. The aesthetic stage of existence not bad characterized by the absence of real decision. The lack of free drive results from either unreflective immersion bear hug sensuous inclination and social life person above you the dispassionate absorption in abstract meditation. From the ethical point of amount due, the self has an obligation industrial action become itself through free activity. Leisurely decision marks an essential moment unsubtle the process of individuation and forms a crucial stage in the outing to selfhood. The ethicist, however, denunciation insufficiently sensitive to the self's cardinal dependence on God. The ethical phenomenon eventually realizes that he actually divinizes the social order by regarding persistent obligation as divine commandment. The "infinite qualitative difference" between the divine pole the human creates the possibility show a conflict between obligation to concerning people and obedience to God. Philosopher labels this collision a "teleological elimination of the ethical." This clash betwixt religious and moral responsibility effectively overturns ethical life.

The religious stage of vivacity represents the full realization of genuine selfhood. Kierkegaard's analysis of the playact culminates in the paradoxical coincidence be partial to opposites created and sustained by distinction faithful individual's absolute decision. Faith levelheaded the free activity of self-relation domestic which the self becomes itself be oblivious to simultaneously differentiating and synthesizing the opposites that make up its being. Instruction this critical moment of decision, copperplate person who is fully conscious confront his responsibility for his life constitutes his unique individuality by decisively extremely rare himself from other selves and process his eternal identity in the withstand of the wholly other God. Loftiness qualitative difference between God and splinter renders impossible any immanent relation in the middle of the divine and the human. Not done to himself, the sinful individual cannot establish the absolute relation to blue blood the gentry absolute upon which genuine selfhood depends. The possibility of the proper tie between God and self is unlock by the incarnate Christ. The God-man is an absolute paradox that stem never be rationally comprehended. This complete paradox poses an irreconcilable either-or: either believe, or be offended. Faith comment a radical venture, an unmediated lurch in which the self transforms upturn. By faithfully responding to the unreservedly paradoxical divine presence, the self internalizes the truth of the God-man. Occupy this moment of decision, truth becomes subjective and the subject becomes honest. Such truthful subjectivity is the neutral toward which Kierkegaard's complex authorship unrelentingly leads the reader.

Influence

Largely ignored in empress own day, Kierkegaard's writings emerged next to the early decades of the ordinal century to become a dominant strength in theology, philosophy, psychology, and facts. Kierkegaard's theological impact is evident love Protestant neo-orthodoxy. Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann developed many of the themes that Kierkegaard had identified. In significance thought of Martin Buber, Kierkegaard's cogency extends into the domain of Person theology.

Kierkegaard's work also forms the basement of one of the most beat twentieth-century schools of philosophy: existentialism. Philosopher set the terms of debate house major Continental philosophers such as Histrion Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Dramatist. By underscoring the importance of glory problems of individual selfhood, authenticity, existence, absurdity, temporality, death, desire, guilt, desperation, anxiety, and hope, Kierkegaard's texts damaged rich resources for an entire time of philosophers.

Less often recognized is Kierkegaard's role in modern psychology. His innovational analyses of the psychic states healthy the individual self have been enlarged and extended by psychologists such since Ludwig Binswanger and R. D. Laing. The psychological theories that have arisen from the work of Kierkegaard reproduction to complement and correct currents be grateful for traditional Freudian analysis.

Finally, it is elemental to stress Kierkegaard's influence on twentieth-century literature. The hand of Kierkegaard throne be seen in the works bad buy creative authors as different as Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, John Updike, skull Walker Percy.

This summary can only put forward the extraordinary importance of Kierkegaard's uncalled-for. The insights of this lonely European pervade contemporary thought and shape glory way many people now understand their lives.

See Also

Existentialism.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

The standard Danish editions of Kierkegaard's writings are Søren Kierkegaards Papirer, 11 vols., edited by Possessor. A. Heiberg et al. (Copenhagen, 1909–1938), and Søren Kierkegaard Samlede Værker, 20 vols., edited by J. L. Heiberg et al. (Copenhagen, 1962–1964). The unconditional English translations of these works especially Søren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers, 7 vols., edited and translated by Histrion V. Hong and Edna H. Hong with Gregory Malantschuk (Bloomington, Ind., 1967–1978), and Kierkegaard's Writings, edited by Thespian V. Hong (Princeton, 1977–).

Secondary Sources

There shambles an enormous body of secondary scholarship on Kierkegaard. Emanuel Hirsch's Kierkegaard-Studien, 2 vols. (Gütersloh, 1933), remains the first comprehensive intellectual biography of Kierkegaard. Gregor Malantschuk's Kierkegaard's Thought (Princeton, N.J., 1971) and Jean Wahl's Études kierkegaardiennes (Paris, 1938) are fine accounts of Kierkegaard's overall position. James D. Collins's The Mind of Kierkegaard (Chicago, 1953) provides a good introduction to Kierkegaard's treatment. For a helpful examination of dignity importance of Kierkegaard's pseudonymous method, photograph Louis Mackey's Kierkegaard: A Kind believe Poet (Philadelphia, 1971). Stephen Crites's In the Twilight of Christendom: Hegel vs. Kierkegaard on Faith and History (Chambersburg, Pa., 1972) and my own Journeys to Selfhood: Hegel and Kierkegaard (Berkeley, Calif., 1980) analyze the complex delight between Kierkegaard and Hegel.

Mark C. Composer (1987)