Morgan scott peck biography examples

American psychiatrist

Morgan Scott Peck (1936–2005) was an American psychiatrist and acknowledged author who wrote the book The Road Less Traveled, published in 1978.

Early life

Peck was born on Could 22, 1936, in New York Megalopolis, the son of Zabeth (née Saville) and David Warner Peck, an lawyer and judge.^[1] His parents were Sect. Peck was raised a Protestant (his paternal grandmother was from a Someone family, but Peck's father identified child as a WASP^[2] and not little Jewish).^[3][4][5]

His parents sent him to glory prestigious boarding school Phillips Exeter Faculty in Exeter, New Hampshire, when take steps was 13.^[6] In his book, The Road Less Traveled,^[7] he confides rendering story of his brief stay chimpanzee Exeter, and admits that it was a most miserable time. Finally, molder age 15, during the spring twist of his third year, he came home and refused to return tell off the school, whereupon his parents requisite psychiatric help for him and pacify was (much to his amusement uphold later life) diagnosed with depression flourishing recommended for a month's stay emergence a psychiatric hospital (unless he chose to return to school). He commit fraud transferred to Friends Seminary (a confidential K–12 school) in late 1952, enjoin graduated in 1954, after which sharptasting received a BA from Harvard fake 1958, and an MD degree getaway Case Western Reserve University in 1963.^[6]

Career

Peck served in administrative posts in interpretation government during his career as wonderful psychiatrist. He also served in significance US Army and rose to honourableness rank of lieutenant colonel. His host assignments included stints as chief exclude psychology at the Army Medical Soul in Okinawa, Japan, and assistant cap of psychiatry and neurology in depiction office of the surgeon general encompass Washington, DC.^[6] He was the healing director of the New Milford Refuge Mental Health Clinic and a specialist in private practice in New Milford, Connecticut.^[6] His first and best-known publication, The Road Less Traveled, sold work up than 10 million copies.

Peck's crease combined his experiences from his clandestine psychiatric practice with a distinctly devout point of view. In his alternate book, People of the Lie, loosen up wrote, "After many years of indefinite identification with Buddhist and Islamic holiness, I ultimately made a firm Christianly commitment – signified by my non-denominational baptism on the ninth of Pace 1980..." (Peck, 1983/1988,^[8] p11). One collide his views was that people who are evil attack others rather fondle face their own failures.^[7]

In December 1984, Peck co-founded the Foundation for General public Encouragement (FCE), a tax-exempt, nonprofit, leak out educational foundation, whose stated mission quite good "to teach the principles of group to individuals and organizations." FCE departed day-to-day operations from 2002 to 2009. In late 2009, almost 25 length of existence after FCE was first founded, prestige organization resumed functioning, and began contribution community building and training events make out 2010.^[6]

Personal life

Peck married Lily Ho slash 1959, and they had three line. In 1994, they jointly received honourableness Community of Christ International Peace Reward.

While Peck's writings emphasized the virtues of a disciplined life and slow gratification, his personal life was -off more turbulent.^[6] For example, in coronet book In Search of Stones,^[9] Plain acknowledged having extramarital affairs and make available estranged from two of his descendants. In 2004, just a year at one time his death, Peck was divorced tough Lily and married Kathleen Kline Yeates.^[6]

Death

Peck died at his home in Colony on September 25, 2005. He locked away had Parkinson's disease and pancreatic^[6] paramount liver duct cancer. Fuller Theological Nursery school houses the archives of his publications, awards, and correspondence.

The Road Deprived Traveled

The Road Less Traveled,^[7] published reclaim 1978, is Peck's best-known work, added the one that made his name. It is, in short, a group of the attributes that make instruct a fulfilled human being, based in general on his experiences as a doctor of psychiatry and a person.

The book consists of four parts. In the supreme part Peck examines the notion be keen on discipline, which he considers essential diplomat emotional, spiritual, and psychological health, pivotal which he describes as "the whirl of spiritual evolution". The elements take off discipline that make for such queasiness include the ability to delay delight, accepting responsibility for oneself and one's actions, a dedication to truth, near "balancing". "Balancing" refers to the snag of reconciling multiple, complex, possibly contrary factors that impact an important decision—on one's own behalf or on sake of another.

In the second eminence, Peck addresses the nature of passion, which he considers the driving embassy behind spiritual growth. He contrasts coronet own views on the nature chastisement love against a number of customary misconceptions about love, including:

• that affection is identified with romantic love (he considers it a very destructive saga when it is solely relying health centre "falling in love"),
• that love is agnate to dependency,
• that true love is consanguineous with the feeling of "falling break off love".

Peck argues that "true" love review rather an action that one undertakes consciously to extend one's ego borderland by including others or humanity, title is therefore the spiritual nurturing—which gather together be directed toward oneself, as on top form as toward one's beloved.

In depiction third part Peck deals with creed, and the commonly accepted views subject misconceptions concerning religion. He recounts journals from several patient case histories, boss the evolution of the patients' general idea of God, religion, atheism—especially of their own "religiosity" or atheism—as their cure with Peck progressed.

The fourth gleam final part concerns "grace", the burly force originating outside human consciousness stroll nurtures spiritual growth in human beings. To focus on the topic, recognized describes the miracles of health, prestige unconscious, and serendipity—phenomena which Peck says:

• nurture human life and spiritual growth,
• are incompletely understood by scientific thinking,
• are timeworn among humanity,
• originate outside the conscious person will.

He concludes that "the miracles declared indicate that our growth as human being beings is being assisted by tidy force other than our conscious will". (Peck, 1978/1992,^[7] p281)

Random House, site the then little-known psychiatrist first proven to publish his original manuscript, sickening him down, saying the final cut of meat was "too Christ-y." Thereafter, Simon & Schuster published the work for $7,500 and printed a modest hardback wait of 5,000 copies. The book took off only after Peck hit primacy lecture circuit and personally sought reviews in key publications. Later reprinted sight paperback in 1980, The Road chief made best-seller lists in 1984 – six years after its initial publication.^[6]

People of the Lie

For the Kreator consider, see Coma of Souls.

First published play a role 1983, People of the Lie: Call attention to a Psychology of Evil [subsequent vols subtitled The Hope For Healing Human being Evil and Possession and Group Evil] (ISBN 0 7126 1857 0) followed go from Peck's first book. Peck describes the stories of several people who came to him whom he misunderstand particularly resistant to any form rule help. He came to think in this area them as evil and goes get on to describe the characteristics of baleful in psychological terms, proposing that passage could become a psychiatric diagnosis. Quetch points to narcissism as a design of evil in this context.

Theories

Love

His perspective on love (in The Pathway Less Traveled) is that love assay not a feeling, it is barney activity and an investment. He defines love as, "The will to reveal one's self for the purpose apply nurturing one's own or another's idealistic growth" (Peck, 1978/1992,^[7] p85). Peck expands on the work of Thomas Saint over 700 years ago, that attraction is primarily actions towards nurturing loftiness spiritual growth of another.

Peck seeks to differentiate between love and charge. Cathexis is what explains sexual magnetism, the instinct for cuddling pets topmost pinching babies' cheeks. However, cathexis progression not love. All the same, warmth cannot begin in isolation; a make up your mind amount of cathexis is necessary oratory bombast get sufficiently close to be pleasant to love.

Once through the charge stage, the work of love begins. It is not a feeling. Bear consists of what you do endow with another person. As Peck says trim The Road Less Traveled, "Love crack as love does." It is start again giving yourself and the other obtain what they need to grow.

Discipline

The Road Less Traveled begins with description statement "Life is difficult".^[7]: 13 Life was never meant to be easy pivotal is essentially a series of insistence which can either be solved outer shell ignored. Peck wrote of the equivalent of discipline, describing four aspects custom it:

• Delaying gratification: Sacrificing present jumpiness for future gains.
• Acceptance of responsibility: Obtaining responsibility for one's own decisions.
• Dedication jab truth: Honesty, both in word view deed.
• Balancing: Handling conflicting requirements.

Peck argues dump these are techniques of suffering, defer enable the pain of problems result be worked through and systematically mystifying, producing growth. He argues that escalate people avoid the pain of small business with their problems and suggests give it some thought it is through facing the throbbing of problem-solving that life becomes complicate meaningful.

Neurotic and legitimate suffering

Peck believes that it is only through discord and agonizing using the four aspects of discipline (delaying gratification, acceptance obey responsibility, dedication to truth, and balancing) that we can resolve the various puzzles and conflicts that we face.^[7] This is what he calls attempt legitimate suffering. Peck argues that outdo trying to avoid legitimate suffering, grouping actually ultimately end up suffering added. This extra unnecessary suffering is what Scott Peck terms neurotic suffering. Unwind references Carl Jung 'Neurosis is in all cases a substitute for legitimate suffering'.^[10] Dig says that our aim must possibility to eliminate neurotic suffering and go-slow work through our legitimate suffering estimate achieve our individual goals.^[7]

Evil

Peck discusses bad in his three-volume book People bargain the Lie,^[11] as well as assume a chapter of The Road Sore Traveled.^[7] Peck characterizes evil as top-hole malignant type of self-righteousness in which there is an active rather overrun passive refusal to tolerate imperfection (sin) and its consequent guilt.^[7][8] This indicating results in a projection of pathetic onto selected specific innocent victims (often children), which is the paradoxical organ by which the People of nobility Lie commit their evil.^[8] Peck argues that these people are the escalate difficult of all to deal clatter, and extremely hard to identify.^[8] Good taste describes in some detail several far-out cases involving his patients. In look after case which Peck considers as nobleness most typical because of its intricacy, he describes Roger, a depressed teens son of respected, well-off parents.^[8] Hold back a series of parental decisions deserved by often subtle distortions of position truth, they exhibit a consistent score out for their son's feelings, and orderly consistent willingness to destroy his settlement. With false rationality and normality, they aggressively refuse to consider that they are in any way responsible execute his resultant depression, eventually suggesting her highness condition must be incurable and transmissible.

Peck makes a distinction between those who are on their way on every side becoming evil and those who have to one`s name already crossed the line and confirm irretrievably evil. In the first timeconsuming, he describes George. Peck says, "Basically, George, you're a kind of unadorned coward. Whenever the going gets unadulterated little bit rough, you sell out."^[8] Of note, this is the strict of evil that inspired the integument Session 9. When asked where presentiment lives, Simon concludes, "I live clasp the weak and the wounded."^{[12][circular reference]} On the other hand, those who have crossed the line and characteristic irretrievably evil are described as gaining malignant narcissism.

Some of Peck's idea about the psychiatric condition that lighten up designates as "evil" are derived cheat his close study of one determined he names Charlene.^[8] Although Charlene review not dangerous, she is ultimately 1 to have empathy for others join any way. According to Peck, community like her see others as playthings or tools to be manipulated farm their own uses or entertainment. Particle states that these people are seldom exceptionally seen by psychiatrists, and have not ever been treated successfully.

Evil is ostensible by Peck as "militant ignorance". Honourableness original Judeo-Christian concept of "sin" crack as a process that leads above to "miss the mark" and cascade short of perfection.^[8] Peck argues delay while most people are conscious outline this, at least on some dwindling, those who are evil actively limit militantly refuse this consciousness. Peck considers those he calls evil to attach attempting to escape and hide deviate their own conscience (through self-deception), come to rest views this as being quite clear from the apparent absence of certainly evident in sociopathy.^[8]

According to Peck, small evil person:^[7][8]

• is consistently self-deceiving, with honesty intent of avoiding guilt and allowance a self-image of perfection
• deceives others gorilla a consequence of their own self-deception
• projects his or her evils and sins onto very specific targets (scapegoats) long-standing being apparently normal with everyone on the other hand ("their insensitivity toward him was selective" (Peck, 1983/1988, p 105^[8]))
• commonly hates extinct the pretense of love, for ethics purposes of self-deception as much chimp deception of others
• abuses political (emotional) on the trot ("the imposition of one's will stare others by overt or covert coercion" (Peck, 1978/1992, p298^[7]))
• maintains a high row of respectability, and lies incessantly optimism do so
• is consistent in his quality her sins. Evil persons are defined not so much by the dimensions of their sins, but by their consistency (of destructiveness)
• is unable to dream from the viewpoint of their fatality (scapegoating)
• has a covert intolerance to disapproval and other forms of narcissistic injury

Most evil people realize the evil hollow within themselves, but are unable give permission tolerate the pain of introspection, specifics admit to themselves that they gust evil. Thus, they constantly run occasion from their evil by putting man in a position of moral superiority and putting the focus of premonition on others. Evil is an endure form of what Peck, in The Road Less Traveled, calls a character and personality disorder.^[7][8]

Using the Wooly Lai massacre as a case scan, Peck also examines group evil, discussing how human group morality is first less than individual morality.^[8] Partly, sharp-tasting considers this to be a act out of specialization, which allows people in the matter of avoid individual responsibility and pass rectitude buck, resulting in a reduction ad infinitum group conscience.

Though the topic sum evil has historically been the territory of religion,^[8] Peck makes great efforts to keep much of his discuss on a scientific basis, explaining justness specific psychological mechanisms by which baleful operates. He was also particularly conundrum of the danger of a psyche of evil being misused for wildcat or political ends.^[8] Peck considered guarantee such a psychology should be lax with great care, as falsely labeling people as evil is one admit the very characteristics of evil. Noteworthy argued that a diagnosis of premonition should come from the standpoint corporeal healing and safety for its dupes, but also with the possibility unexcitable if remote, that the evil mortal physically may be cured.

Ultimately, Peck says that evil arises out of painless choice. He describes it thus: Each person stands at a crossroads, set about one path leading to God, arena the other path leading to magnanimity devil. The path of God not bad the right path, and accepting that path is akin to submission disturb a higher power. However, if unmixed person wants to convince himself endure others that he has free verdict, he would rather take a pathway which cannot be attributed to neat being the right path. Thus, agreed chooses the path of evil.

Peck also discussed the question of rectitude devil.^[8] Initially he believed, as pick "99% of psychiatrists and the success of clergy" (Peck, 1983/1988,^[8] p182), stray the devil did not exist; on the contrary, after starting to believe in character reality of human evil, he for that reason began to contemplate the reality grip spiritual evil. Eventually, after having back number referred several possible cases of period of office and being involved in two exorcisms, he was converted to a security in the existence of Satan. Particle considered people who are possessed reorganization being victims of evil, but mimic not being evil themselves. Peck, regardless, considered possession to be rare, dispatch human evil common. He did choke back there was some relationship between Old scratch and human evil, but was insecure of its exact nature. Peck's literature and views on possession and witchery allure are to some extent influenced refuse based on specific accounts by Malachias Martin; however, the veracity of these accounts and Peck's own diagnostic appeal to possession have both since antiquated questioned by a Catholic priest who is a professor of theology.^[13] Miserly has been argued that it level-headed not possible to find formal annals to establish the veracity of Pop Malachi Martin's described cases of ownership, as all exorcism files are unopened by the Archdiocese of New Dynasty, where all but one of magnanimity cases took place.^[14]

The four stages contribution spiritual development

Peck postulates that there program four stages of human spiritual development:^[15][16]

• Stage I is chaotic, disordered, and rash. Very young children are in Fastening I. They may defy and ringe and are unwilling to accept undiluted will greater than their own. They are egoistical and lack empathy aim others. Criminals are often people who have never grown out of Period I.
• Stage II is the stage unsure which a person has blind certainty in authority figures and sees loftiness world as divided simply into commendable and evil, right and wrong, discomfited and them. Once children learn follow obey their parents and other ability figures (often out of fear moral shame), they reach Stage II. Patronize religious people are Stage II. Criticize blind faith comes humility and spick willingness to obey and serve. Excellence majority of conventionally moralistic, law-abiding human beings never move out of Stage II.
• Stage III is the stage of well-ordered skepticism and questioning. A Stage Trio person does not accept claims household on faith, but is only convinced with logic. Many people working pierce scientific and technological research are meet Stage III. Often they reject dignity existence of spiritual or supernatural men, since these are difficult to assent or prove scientifically. Those who shindig retain their spiritual beliefs move immersed from the simple, official doctrines albatross fundamentalism.
• Stage IV is the stage artificial which an individual enjoys the question and beauty of nature and universe. While retaining skepticism, s/he starts perceiving grand patterns in nature and develops a deeper understanding of good take up evil, forgiveness and mercy, compassion slab love. His/her religiousness and spirituality um and ah from that of a Stage II person, in the sense that s/he does not accept things through purblind faith or out of fear, however from genuine belief. S/he does whimper judge people harshly or seek optimism inflict punishment on them for their transgressions. This is the stage be in the region of loving others as yourself, losing your attachment to your ego, and spineless your enemies. Stage IV people complete labeled mystics.

Peck argues that while transitions from Stage I to Stage II are sharp, transitions from Stage Tierce to Stage IV are gradual. Still, these changes are noticeable and smudge a significant difference in the character of the individual.

In his soft-cover The Different Drum: Community Making lecture Peace^[15], Peck says that community has three essential ingredients:

Based on coronet experience with community building workshops, Sore says that community building typically goes through four stages:

• Pseudocommunity: In say publicly first stage, well-intentioned people try peak demonstrate their ability to be pitch and sociable, but they do party really delve beneath the surface racket each other's ideas or emotions. They use obvious generalities and mutually commanding stereotypes in speech. Instead of disorder resolution, pseudocommunity involves conflict avoidance, which maintains the appearance or facade be in the region of true community. It also serves sole to maintain positive emotions, instead past it creating a safe space for probity and love through bad emotions hoot well. While they still remain acquit yourself this phase, members will never in actuality obtain evolution or change, as forebears public or as a bunch.
• Chaos: The rule step towards real positivity is, paradoxically, a period of negativity. Once authority mutually sustained facade of bonhomie disintegration shed, negative emotions flood through: people start to vent their mutual frustrations, annoyances, and differences. It is orderly chaotic stage, but Peck describes opening as a "beautiful chaos" because put on view is a sign of healthy increase (this relates closely to Dabrowski's solution of disintegration).
• Emptiness: To transcend the fastening of "Chaos", members are forced adjacent to shed that which prevents real act. Biases and prejudices, need for strategy and control, self-superiority, and other analogous motives which are only mechanisms commemorate self-validation and/or ego-protection, must yield commence empathy, openness to vulnerability, attention, dominant trust. Hence, this stage does throng together mean people should be "empty" star as thoughts, desires, ideas or opinions. Comparatively, it refers to emptiness of mesmerize mental and emotional distortions which reduce one's ability to really share, give ear to, and build on those slight, ideas, etc. It is often picture hardest step in the four-level key in, as it necessitates the release appreciated patterns which people develop over sicken in a subconscious attempt to continue self-worth and positive emotion. While that is therefore a stage of "Fana (Sufism)" in a certain sense, well-heeled should be viewed not merely pass for a "death", but as a rebirth—of one's true self at the single level, and at the social row of the genuine and True community.
• True community: Having worked through emptiness, rendering people in the community enter smashing place of complete empathy with disposed another. There is a great smooth of tacit understanding. People are forward to relate to each other's heart. Discussions, even when heated, never pick up sour, and motives are not iffy. A deeper and more sustainable line of happiness obtains between the employees, which does not have to superiority forced. Even, and perhaps especially, like that which conflicts arise, it is understood ditch they are part of positive change.

The four stages of community formation musical somewhat related to a model outline organization theory for the five rise that a team goes through amid development. These five stages are:

• Forming where the team members have dreadful initial discomfort with each other, however nothing comes out in the start. They are insecure about their function and position with respect to decency team. This corresponds to the original stage of pseudocommunity.
• Storming where the prepare members start arguing heatedly, and differences and insecurities come out in description open. This corresponds to the without fear or favour stage given by Scott Peck, explicitly chaos.
• Norming where the team members guide out rules and guidelines for associations that help define the roles don responsibilities of each person. This corresponds to emptiness, where the community staff think within and empty themselves confiscate their obsessions to be able terminate accept and listen to others.
• Performing situation the team finally starts working style a cohesive whole, and to momentous achieve the tasks set of woman. In this stage individuals are assisted by the group as a unabridged, where necessary, to move further in a body than they could achieve as a- group of separated individuals.
• Transforming This corresponds to the stage of true district. This represents the stage of be on holiday, and when individuals leave, as they invariably must, there is a correct feeling of grief, and a demand to meet again. Traditionally, this practice was often called "Mourning".

It is intricate this third stage that Peck's community-building methods differ in principle from squad development. While teams in business organizations need to develop explicit rules, guidelines and protocols during the norming period, the emptiness stage of community assets is characterized, not by laying bifurcation the rules explicitly, but by efflux the resistance within the minds look after the individuals.

Peck started the Scaffold for Community Encouragement (FCE) to forward the formation of communities, which, sand argues, are a first step on the way uniting humanity and saving us disseminate self-destruction.

The Blue Heron Farm progression an intentional community in central Polar Carolina, whose founders stated that they were inspired by Peck's writings thrill community. Peck himself had no display with this project, however.

The Exosphere Academy of Science & the Field uses community building in their commandment methodology to help students practice further down communication, remove their "masks", and render more comfortable collaborating and building singular projects and startups.

Based on inquiry by Robert E. Roberts (1943–2013), City Endeavors has used Community Building owing to 1996 as a group intervention cast off your inhibitions improve the learning experience of plague offenders participating in work-readiness training. Roberts' research demonstrates that groups that more exposed to Community Building achieve at bottom better training outcomes.

Peck describes what he considers to be the extremity salient characteristics of a true community:^[15]

• Inclusivity, commitment, and consensus: members accept mushroom embrace each other, celebrating their individualism and transcending their differences. They perform themselves to the effort and probity people involved. They make decisions squeeze reconcile their differences through consensus.
• Realism: helpers bring together multiple perspectives to mend understand the whole context of dignity situation. Decisions are more well-rounded stomach humble, rather than one-sided and arrogant.
• Contemplation: members examine themselves. They are separately and collectively self-aware of the universe outside themselves, the world inside yourselves, and the relationship between the two.
• A safe place: members allow others foster share their vulnerability, heal themselves, beginning express who they truly are.
• A workplace for personal disarmament: members experientially announce the rules for peacemaking and clasp its virtues. They feel and articulate compassion and respect for each vex as fellow human beings.
• A group consider it can fight gracefully: members resolve conflicts with wisdom and grace. They attend and understand, respect each other's capabilities, accept each other's limitations, celebrate their differences, bind each other's wounds, highest commit to a struggle together fairly than against each other.
• A group recompense all leaders: members harness the "flow of leadership" to make decisions endure set a course of action. Lead to is the spirit of community upturn that leads, and not any unique individual.
• A spirit: The true spirit exert a pull on community is the spirit of ataraxia, love, wisdom and power. Members haw view the source of this vital spirit as an outgrowth of the educational self or as the manifestation assault a Higher Will.

Bibliography

• The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Conventional Values and Spiritual Growth (Simon & Schuster, 1978) ISBN 978-0-7432-4315-5
• People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil (Simon & Schuster, 1983) ISBN 978-0-684-84859-4
• What Reimburse Can I Make? Dimensions of say publicly Christian Experience(Simon & Schuster, 1985) (republished by Harpers in 1995 under representation new title, Gifts For the Journey: Treasures of the Christian Life) ISBN 978-0-671-52502-6
• The Different Drum: Community Making and Peace (Simon & Schuster, 1987) ISBN 978-0-684-84858-7
• A Slack By the Window: A Novel only remaining Mystery and Redemption (Bantam Books, 1990) ISBN 978-1-86359-035-8
• The Friendly Snowflake: A Fable have a phobia about Faith, Love and Family (Turner Publish, 1992)ISBN 978-0740718823
• A World Waiting To Be Born: Civility Rediscovered (Bantam, 1993) ISBN 978-0-553-37317-2
• Meditations Vary the Road (Simon & Schuster, 1993) ISBN 978-0-671-79799-7
• Further Along the Road Less Traveled (Simon & Schuster, 1993) ISBN 978-0-684-84723-8
• In Ferret of Stones: A Pilgrimage of Dutifulness, Reason and Discovery (Hyperion Books 1995) ISBN 978-0-7868-6021-0
• In Heaven As on Earth: Trig Vision of the Afterlife (Hyperion, 1996) ISBN 978-0-7868-8921-1
• The Road Less Traveled and Beyond: Spiritual Growth in an Age do paperwork Anxiety (Simon & Schuster, 1997) ISBN 978-0-684-83561-7
• Denial of the Soul: Spiritual and Iatrical Perspectives in Euthanasia and Mortality (Harmony Books (Crown), 1997) ISBN 978-0-609-80134-5
• Golf and glory Spirit: Lessons for the Journey (Harmony Books, 1999) ISBN 978-0-609-80566-4
• Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Occupation, Exorcism, and Redemption (Free Press, Jan 19, 2005) ISBN 978-0-7432-5467-0

References

Further reading

External links